1. INTRODUCTION:

Located at Raipur to identify efficient cropping systems for Chhattisgarh and. Raipur, rice -be seem was identified to be more efficient and most suited for Chhattisgarh, with highest wheat - grain-equivalent yield (13 479 kg/ha/year), system productivity (36.93 kg/day/ha), stability (0.90), energy production (39.2 × 10₆ K cal/ ha), land-use efficiency (71%), nutrient use productivity (94.93 kg grain/kg nutrient), net monetary returns (Rs 62 526/ha/ year), profitability (Rs 171.3/ha/day) and benefit: cost ratio (Rs 4.68). Deficit irrigation in some areas may decrease yield but can increase production if land availability is not a constraint. A large potential exists for bridging the yield gap in irrigated areas with consumptive water use between 300 and 475 mm. Of the 222 districts that fall under this category, a 50% reduction in yield gap alone could increase production by 100 million tons without increasing consumptive water use. Supplementary irrigation can increase yield and WP in rain-fed and irrigated areas of 266 and 16 districts with consumptive water use is below 300 mm. Deficit irrigation in irrigated areas of 185 districts with consumptive water use above 475 mm could increase yield, WP and production. Decreasing consumptive water use in irrigated areas with consumptive water use between 425 and 475 mm reduces yield slightly, but if availability of land is not a constraint then the benefits due to water saving and production increases could exceed the cost. This sequence was found specially suited for fodder-scarce animal-based farming situations having good irrigation facilities.

The next best choice was rice-tomato with wheat-grain-equivalent yield of 11 317 kg/ha/year, system productivity of 31.01 kg/ha/day, energy production of 16.6 ×10₆ K cal/ha, land-use efficiency of 70%, water use productivity of 98.40 kg grain/ha-cm water. representing medium black soils and limited irrigation water conditions, soybean -based systems, viz soybean-wheat and soybean-chickpea systems were identified to be more efficient only in terms of production (5 128 and 4 990 kg/ha/year as wheat-grain-equivalent yield), productivity (14.50 and 13.67 kg/ha/day) and stability (0.56 and 62). wheat system was most efficient (105.2 kg grain/ha-cm water used). The soil fertility could be maintained with use of recommended doses of fertilizers over the years under different systems.

1.1 Interventions Suggested By Experts and Farmers

The problems associated with cultivation in bunded and unbunded fields, in different soil types, in each of the three ecological zones in the state (namely the central plains, Bastar plateau and the northern hill zone) have been identified. The problems cover those arising from soil chemistry and its texture, and their implications for soil moisture, and hence for crops grown and tendency for weed growth. Based on these the suitability of different soil types for agriculture has been assessed, and an appropriate mix of crops has been suggested grown for fodder, or vegetation, or horticulture in others. The viability of fish farming in rice fields has also been looked into. Measures such as the manner of sowing of crops in the fields, ways to collect and re-cycle rainwater, varieties of rice that can be sown, appropriate time for sowing of certain crops, schedule of application of weedicides, etc, have been suggested. Areas that warrant either further improvements, or research, or different mechanical inputs (such as implements for sowing) have also been identified.

1.2 Water Resources in Chhattisgarh -

The main sources of water in Chhattisgarh are Tanks, rivers and ground waters. Chhattisgarh has major rivers providing the sustenance to the socio - economic improvement of the state, such as Sheonath, Mahanadi, Indravati, Hasdeo, Arpa, Kelo, Rehar, Son, Kanhar etc.

The geographical area of Chhattisgarh can be divided into 5 major river basins:

1. Mahanadi Basin (75,546 Sq.Km.)

2. Godavari Basin (39,577 Sq.Km.)

3. Ganga Basin (18,808 Sq.Km.)

4. Narmada Basin (2,113 Sq.Km.)

5. Brahmani Basin (1,316 Sq.Km.)

Total 137,360 Sq.Km.

Under the Asian Development aided Chhattisgarh Irrigation Development Project, it is planned to endorse sustainability of irrigated agriculture and perk up water resources managing by healing and upgrading of inconsequential scheme diversification and field enhancement.

Chhattisgarh has a record of tanks constructed in villages since Kalchuri Kings and practically every village has a small tank for every day needs. There are 4 Major, 2199 Minor and 33 Medium completed irrigation projects in Chhattisgarh as on March 31, 2006. To triumph over condition of persistent draughts due to unstable rainfall, the Chhattisgarh government has taken up numerous novel irrigation projects on top precedence with a decisive aim of accomplishing irrigation for 75 percent cultivable area. An all - inclusive master plan for Chhattisgarh, for most advantageous use of water resources is also being prepared.

1.3 Problem statement

There is a knowledge gap with respect to the interdependencies between water use and water availability on different temporal and spatial scales in Chhattisgarh. The relation between water users and water resources is reciprocal: human interference in hydrological processes changes water resources availability and changes and variations in the distribution of water resources over space and time induce responses by water users. Although many important studies (e.g. climate change impact assessments) recognize that one should take into account the impact of human activities on natural processes in studying water scarcity, water user responses to variations and changes in water availability are generally not taken into account. Reducing this knowledge gap is relevant to climate change.impact assessments and water allocation in Chhattisgarh environments.

1.4 Research objective, questions and scope

The objective of this thesis is to increase understanding of the influence of changes and Variations in rainfall and the application of alternative reservoir operation strategies on the Spatial and temporal distribution of water availability and agricultural water use in Chhattisgarh. This is achieved by analyzing and modeling the interactions between water users and water resources. To guide this study the following research questions have been formulated:

1 What physical characteristics of Chhattisgarh are critical for the manageability of water resources?

2 What is the relationship between water use and water availability in Chhattisgarh?

3 Can the use of a multi-agent simulation approach to depicting scale interaction between water use and water resources result in a valid representation of observed variations in the distribution of water use and water availability?

4 What are the effects of decreasing rainfall and alternative reservoir operation strategies on the distribution of water use and water availability in Chhattisgarh?

The research conducted aims to contribute to the literature on Chhattisgarh research question use was made of literature on common-pool resource (CPR) management, because this field of study addresses the influence of resource system characteristics on the manageability of resource systems. To answer the second research question a standard stochastic approach was used to simulate the influence of water use Variations in water use that are due to interactions between water users and local water resources are included. To answer the third research question a multi-agent simulation (MAS) model has been developed and validated. A MAS model allows the representation of interaction between water users and water resources in a spatially-explicit way. To answer the fourth research question the developed MAS model was applied.

2 METHODS:

2.1 General approach

The dynamics in most river basin resource systems include both social and natural processes, and interactions between the two. To study these a framework of qualitative, quantitative and integrative research methods has been put together to analyse a case study Chhattisgarh.

This study involves analysing the system dynamics of water resources in the Chhattisgarh rivers basin, including the mutual relationship between water availability and water use under the influence of rainfall variability (Figure 2.1). Interventions in thenatural course of water in one place influence water availability and water use in that placeitself, as well as in other locations. Obviously, higher water demands lead to increasing abstraction and therefore reduce water availability. In turn water availability influences water demand for irrigation, because water users anticipate and respond to water availability by modifying their decisions with respect to the area of land to be irrigated and the type of crop to grow.

2.2 Study area

Chhattisgarh state situated in the Central part of India came into being on November 1, 2000. It is land-locked state with Uttar Pradesh in the North, Jharkhand in the North-East, Orissa in the South-East, Madhya Pradesh in the North-West, Maharashtra in South-West and Andhra Pradesh in the South. It is located between 17°50' to 24°08' N latitude and 80° 15’ to 84° 13'E longitude. Raipur is the state capital.

Chhattisgarh state enjoys hot and humid monsoon climate. Physical features, location and distance from sea have deep influence on the climate of state. Temperature is high in summer and it is very cold in winter. Average temperature in winter is around 18°C. Lowest temperature can be observed in the months of December and January. Average temperature in summer is around 30 - 32°C. may is the hottest month with maximum temperature touching 45°C. Average annual rainfall in the state is 1418 mm.

3 RESOURCES AND USES

3.1 Power

Chhattisgarh is perched to become the power hub of India. The plentiful accessibility of coal guarantees stable supply of raw material for potential thermal power projects. Chhattisgarh’s Energy Policy endeavors to offer power to all villages and households and to persuade private chipping in power production. Chhattisgarh Government energetically aids confidential power producers to arrange power projects in the state. The State Government has formed Renewable Energy Development Authority for expansion of renewable sources. Chhattisgarh Bio fuel Development Agency has been formed to take up a striving programme for expansion of Bio - Diesel in Chhattisgarh. Chhattisgarh created a considerable 36 % of the entire power engendered in entire Madhya Pradesh, contributing 42 % Thermal and 14 % of Hydel power. In terms of power utilization, Chhattisgarh devours around 24 % of total consumption in 1996 - 97 and 1997 - 98.

3.2 Forest

Dimly less than half of the geographical vicinity of Chhattisgarh is enclosed by forests. They are affluent in biodiversity. Timber adds about 40 % of the total forest proceeds. Rest comes from Non Wood Forest Products. Chhattisgarh has 3 major national parks, Sarguja, Kanger Valley National Park in Bastar, Indrawati National park in Dantewara and Guru Ghasidas National Park in Koriya. There are eleven wildlife sanctuaries. Practically 10,000 industrial units rely on forests for their raw material support. Chhattisgarh is prosperous in Non Wood Forest Products like Harra, Tendu Leaves, Sal Seed, Mahua, Gum, Amla, Lac, Achar, Chironji and numerous medicinal plants. Chhattisgarh has prospective to swarm a number of Medicinal, Herbal, Aromatic plant based units. The Recorded forest area in Chhattisgarh is 59,772 km2 which is 44.21% of its geographical area. Reserved, unclassed and protected forests constitute 43.13%, 16.65% and 40.21% of the total forest area respectively.

3.3 Minerals

Chhattisgarh congregates an extensive diversity of minerals found allied with sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rock configuration. A small number of them form hefty economic dumps whereas a number of other minerals are stated as occurrences. Hefty deposits of Iron ore, Coal, Limestone, Bauxite and Dolomite is found in various parts of Chhattisgarh. Diamondiferous Kimber lites acknowledged in Raipur region are also expected to acquiesce sizeable amount of diamonds. Tin bearing Pegmatites including judicious deposits are also acknowledged. Average to small deposits of gold base metals, soapstone/steatite, quartzite, fluorite, graphite, corundum, lepidolite, amblygonite of feasible size are also recognized that may score in the kind of hefty deposits after searching. Episodes of garnet, beryl, amethyst, andalucite, sillimanite, kyanite and rare expensive mineral alexandrite are also accounted from diverse parts of the State.

3.4 Focus On Micro and Minor Irrigation

Shankar Guha Niyogi emphasized the greater relevance of micro-and minor irrigation projects in the undulating tribal areas. While creating large storages with high dams, about one million hectares of forest and almost equal acreage of cultivated lands have been lost, and over two million people ousted from their homes. The canal system has irrigated fields at a slow pace, and with damaging environment consequences. Major dams take nearly ten years for completion and another ten years to fully utilize the created potential. A poor country like India can ill afford to lock up such large sums of money for a long period.

4 CONCLUSIONS:

Water scarcity in Chhattisgarh research on benefit from applying elements from Water resources literature to analyse the manageability of water resources and from applying a spatially-explicit multi-agent simulation approach to model interactions between water users and water resources. Physical determinants for the spatial and temporal distribution of water resources and water use in Chhattisgarh are: topographical elevation, rainfall intensity and variability (specifically over time), and water storage capacity with its spatial distribution over a basin. For Chhattisgarh resource system concepts for the assessment of manageability of water resources on a local scale can be linked systematically to topographical elevation.

This concept is useful in explaining how physical conditions for good manageability improve or worsen from up- to downstream. A representation of processes that are responsible for observed variations in the distribution of water use and water availability can be made for the Chhattisgarh by applying a spatially-explicit multi-agent simulation model approach that is implemented by using survey data on water user decision making. The model could serve as a learning tool for authorities and resource users and facilitate improved decision making on water allocation.

However, this can only be achieved at the cost of a decline in water availability in parts of the Chhattisgarh that are located further downstream.

5. SUMMARY:

Water scarcity programmed should be based, proposes a set of definitions associated with the concept of water scarcity. Improvements in water productivity are often suggested as one of the alternative strategies for overcoming growing water scarcity in India. This paper explores the potential improvements in water productivity of food grains at district level, which currently varies between 0.11 and 1.01 kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m³), in the 403 districts that account for 98% of the total production of food grains. The paper first finds the maximum yield function conditional on consumptive water use and then explores the potential improvements in water productivity by: - bridging the gap between actual and maximum yield while keeping CWU constant; and changing the maximum yield by adjusting the consumptive water use using supplementary or deficit irrigation.

Water scarcity programme should be based, proposes a set of definitions associated with the concept of water scarcity. Chhattisgarh is richly endowed with water resources, both the ground water resources and the surface water resources but there is a need to efficiently and effectively plan, develop and utilise these resources for overall benefit of the state.

Issues that were addressed in discussions included :-

v The quantification of water scarcity.

v Policy and technical response options available to ensure food security in conditions of water scarcity.

v Criteria and principles that should be used to establish priorities for action in response to water scarcity in agriculture and ensure effective and efficient water scarcity strategies.

Thus, exporting irrigating cash crops (for example citrus) in order to secure foreign exchange that enables purchase of wheat imports is one pathway within a water: food security strategy, as much as irrigated be seem for livestock fodder, or irrigated wheat or sorghum for direct domestic consumption. Commercially imported foodstuffs or food aid (where used) shifts water consumption to the food-originating countries, and is subject to another set of political economy/incentives etc factors.

6. REFERENCES:

1. Shankar Guha Niyogi, Sangharsh Aur Nirmaan, Rajkamal, New Delhi.

2. Barreteau, O. and Bousquet, F. 2000. SHADOC: a multi-agent model to tackle viability of irrigated systems. Annals of Operations Research, 94: 139-167.

3. Nash, J.E. and Sutcliffe, J.V. 1970. River flow forecasting through conceptual models part I -- A discussion of principles. Journal of Hydrology, 10(3): 282.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. Alcamo, J. and Henrichs, T. 2002. Critical regions: A model-based estimation of world water resources sensitive to global changes. Aquatic Sciences, 64(4): 352-362.

2. Barreteau, O. 2003. Our companion modelling approach. JASSS-The Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation, 6(2).

3. Barreteau, O. and Bousquet, F. 2000. Shadoc: a multi-agent model to tackle viability ofirrigated systems. Annals of Operations Research, 94: 139-167.

4. Nash, J.E. and Sutcliffe, J.V. 1970. River flow forecasting through conceptual models part I -- A discussion of principles. Journal of Hydrology, 10(3): 282.

5. Shankar Guha Niyogi, Sangharsh Aur Nirmaan, Rajkamal, New Delhi.

6. Teclaff, L.A. 1967. The river basin in history and law, The Hague, The Netherlands.

7. World Commission on Dams. 2000. Dams and development - a new framework fordecision-making: the report of the world commission on dams.

Received on 12.05.2014 Modified on 20.06.2014

Int. J. Rev. & Res. Social Sci. 2(2): April-June 2014; Page 133-137